John Locke (1632–1704),a famous English philosopher, and founder of British empiricism. Locke's ideas were characteristic of the Enlightenment with his steadfast belief in the middle class and its right to freedom of conscience and right to property.  His great faith in science, coupled with his confidence in the goodness of humanity were also reflective of the value system of his time. His influence upon philosophy and political theory has been incalculable. 

His Life and Work 

    Locke was educated at Christ Church College, Oxford, were in 1660 he became a lecturer in Greek, rhetoric, and philosophy. In addition he studied medicine and the sciences. This acquaintance with scientific practice had a profound influence upon his philosophical thoughts and method. In 1666, Locke met Anthony Ashley Cooper, later the Earl of Shaftesbury.  The two soon became friends, Locke becoming the Earl's physician, and adviser. After 1667, Locke held several minor diplomatic and civil posts, most of them through Shaftesbury. In 1675, after Shaftesbury lost his offices, Locke left England for France, where he studied and met with French leaders in the sciences and philosophy. 

    Returning to England in 1679, Locke retired to Oxford, where he stayed until, suspected of radicalism by the government, he left for Holland and remained there several years (1683–89). While in Holland he completed the famous Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), which was published in complete form after his return to England at the accession of William and Mary to the throne.   In this  same year he published his Two Treatises on Civil Government; part of it justifies the Glorious Revolution of 1688, however much of it was written earlier.   Whit the success of these works Locke's fame increased, and he soon became known as the leading philosopher of freedom. 

Philosophy 

    In the Essay Concerning Human Understanding Locke examines the nature of the human mind and the process by which it knows the world. Contrasting with the traditional doctrine of innate ideas, Locke believed that the mind is born blank, a "tabula rasa" upon which the world describes itself through the experience of the five senses. Knowledge arising from sensation is perfected by reflection, thus enabling humans to arrive at such concepts as space, and time. 

    Locke distinguished the primary qualities of things (e.g., solidity, number) from their secondary qualities (e.g., color, sound). These latter qualities he believed to be produced by the impact of the world on the sensory organs. Locke maintained that behind this curtain of sensation the world itself is colorless and silent. Science is therefore possible, because the primary world affects the sense organs mechanically, so producing ideas that represent reality. The clear, "common-sense" style of the Essay concealed many unexplored assumptions that the later empiricists like George Berkeley and David Hume would contest, but the problems that Locke set forward have occupied philosophy to this day. 

Political Theory 

    Locke is most remembered for his unique political theory. Contradicting Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that the original state of nature was characterized by reason and tolerance. In that state all people were equal and independent, and none had a right to harm another's “life, health, liberty, or possessions.” The state was formed by "social contract".  For, in the state of nature each man was his own judge, and there was no protection against those who lived outside the laws of nature. Locke therefore reasoned that the state should be guided by natural law. 

    Locke held that the rights of property were of utmost importance, because each person has a right to the products of his labor. Locke correctly forecast the labor theory of value. The policy of governmental checks and balances, as delineated in the Constitution of the United States, was set down by Locke, as was the doctrine that revolution in some circumstances is not only a right but an obligation. Locke is said to have contributed to the Fundamental Constitutions for the Carolinas; the colony however, never implemented the document. 

Ethical Theory 

    Locke's ethical theories were based upon a belief in the "natural goodness" of humanity. Locke stated that the inevitable pursuit of happiness and pleasure, when conducted rationally, leads to cooperation, and in the long run private happiness and the general welfare coincide. Locke cautioned that immediate pleasures must give way to a prudent regard for the ultimate good, including reward in the afterlife. 

    Locke argued for religious freedom in three separate essays on toleration but excepted atheism and Roman Catholicism, which he felt should be legislated against as inimical to religion and the state. In his essay The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695), Locke emphasized the ethical aspect of Christianity against dogma. 

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